3D/4D printed bio-composites reinforced by bamboo charcoal and continuous flax fibres for superior mechanical strength, flame retardancy and recoverability

Bodaghi, M ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0707-944X, Rahmani, K ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0815-1562, Dezaki, ML ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5680-1550, Branfoot, C and Baxendale, J, 2025. 3D/4D printed bio-composites reinforced by bamboo charcoal and continuous flax fibres for superior mechanical strength, flame retardancy and recoverability. Polymer Testing, 143: 108709. ISSN 0142-9418

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Abstract

This study explores development and 3D/4D printing of environmentally friendly bio-composites with enhanced mechanical properties, flame retardancy, and shape memory capabilities. Composite filaments were created by incorporating polylactic acid (PLA) with bamboo charcoal (BC) and then printed using a modified printer equipped with a dual-feed system to accommodate both PLA/BC filaments and continuous flax fibres (CFF). SEM revealed strong fibre-matrix bonding with minimal voids, indicating good interfacial adhesion. Bio-composite properties were characterised through DMA, tensile, three-point bending, flammability, and shape-memory effect tests. Adding 3 wt% BC and CFF significantly increased the tensile strength by 248 % and the flexural strength by 207 % compared to pure PLA. Flame retardancy properties were notably improved, with a 50 % reduction in the burning rate, and underwriters’ laboratories (UL-94) rate and limiting oxygen index (LOI) reached to V-1 rating and 36.8%vol, respectively. DMA tests showed an increase in storage modulus, indicating improved stiffness. Shape memory tests under cold/hot programming protocols demonstrated efficient shape fixation with shape recovery ratios reaching up to 98.9 % for pure PLA and 89 % for PLA/BC/CFF for hot programming. Finally, a conceptual meta-bio-composite was 4D printed, showcasing key achievements such as quasi-zero stiffness, constant force behaviour, enhanced energy absorption/dissipation, and excellent recoverability and reusability. This highlights their potential for applications requiring durability, safety, comfort, and sustainability in sectors such as automotive, aerospace, logistics, construction, and furniture.

Item Type:	Journal article
Publication Title:	Polymer Testing
Creators:	Bodaghi, M., Rahmani, K., Dezaki, M.L., Branfoot, C. and Baxendale, J.
Publisher:	Elsevier
Date:	February 2025
Volume:	143
ISSN:	0142-9418
Identifiers:	Number Type 10.1016/j.polymertesting.2025.108709 DOI 2367082 Other
Rights:	© 2025 the authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Divisions:	Schools > School of Science and Technology
Record created by:	Jonathan Gallacher
Date Added:	11 Feb 2025 08:40
Last Modified:	11 Feb 2025 08:40
URI:	https://irep.ntu.ac.uk/id/eprint/53017

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