Development of rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) facial musculature: implications for macaque social behavior ontogeny

Pater, JT, Kimock, CM, Downing, SE, Waller, BM ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6303-7458 and Burrows, AM, 2025. Development of rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) facial musculature: implications for macaque social behavior ontogeny. American Journal of Primatology, 87 (2): e70003. ISSN 0275-2565

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Abstract

Rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) have long been used as a model for the evolution of some aspects of human social behavior and they are among the most completely understood species of the macaque genus. Rhesus macaques have a despotic dominance hierarchy with a well-documented facial display repertoire. However, we know little about the ontogenetic changes in gross facial musculature and how this might relate to corresponding facial display behavior. In an effort to illuminate our understanding, we dissected facial masks from 13 M. mulatta cadavers that died naturally, shortly after birth or were stillborn, and we compared these results to those from adult rhesus macaques. Results reveal that, unlike the adults in the present study, infant rhesus macaques have extrinsic external ear muscles and muscles associated with the lower lip that are very gracile and poorly developed. Musculature associated with the upper lip and nares are well developed, individually distinct, and robust, like those of the adults in our sample and adult M. mulatta. However, we were unable to locate the zygomaticus major muscle in any fetal/infant sample. These results may reflect simple variation in mimetic muscle ontogeny, differences related to facial allometry, or they could reflect a behaviorally meaningful adaptation to different life stages of macaque ontogeny.

Item Type:	Journal article
Publication Title:	American Journal of Primatology
Creators:	Pater, J.T., Kimock, C.M., Downing, S.E., Waller, B.M. and Burrows, A.M.
Publisher:	Wiley
Date:	February 2025
Volume:	87
Number:	2
ISSN:	0275-2565
Identifiers:	Number Type 10.1002/ajp.70003 DOI 2378538 Other
Rights:	This is the peer reviewed version of the following article: Pater, J.T., Kimock, C.M., Downing, S.E., Waller, B.M. and Burrows, A.M., 2025. Development of rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) facial musculature: implications for macaque social behavior ontogeny. American Journal of Primatology, 87 (2): e70003, which has been published in final form at [Link to final article using the DOI]. This article may be used for non-commercial purposes in accordance with Wiley Terms and Conditions for Use of Self-Archived Versions. This article may not be enhanced, enriched or otherwise transformed into a derivative work, without express permission from Wiley or by statutory rights under applicable legislation. Copyright notices must not be removed, obscured or modified. The article must be linked to Wiley’s version of record on Wiley Online Library and any embedding, framing or otherwise making available the article or pages thereof by third parties from platforms, services and websites other than Wiley Online Library must be prohibited.
Divisions:	Schools > School of Social Sciences
Record created by:	Jonathan Gallacher
Date Added:	13 Mar 2025 15:48
Last Modified:	13 Mar 2025 15:48
URI:	https://irep.ntu.ac.uk/id/eprint/53241

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